CERVICAL CANCER by Kadiri Ejura Stella

 CERVICAL CANCER

Ejura Kajiri Stella

It is a malignant tumor of the cervix, the lowermost part of the uterus (womb). it begins on the surface of your cervix. It happens when the cells on the cervix begin to change to precancerous cells. Not all precancerous cells will turn to cancer, but finding these problematic cells and treating them before they can change is critical to preventing cervical cancer. There are two main types of cancer of the cervix, squamous cell carcinomas and adenocarcinomas. About 80% to 90% of cervical cancers are squamous cell carcinomas, while 10% to 20% are adenocarcinoma.

Various strains of the human papillomavirus (HPV), a sexually transmitted infection play a role in causing most cervical cancer. When exposed to HPV, the body’s immune system typically prevents the virus from the virus from doing harm in a small percentage of people, however, the virus survives for years, contributing to the process that causes some cervical cells to become cancer cells.     

What is the cervix?

The cervix is the lowest part of the uterus (where a baby grows during pregnancy). It looks a little bit like a donut and connects the uterus to the opening of the vagina. It's covered in tissues made up of cells. These healthy cells are what can grow and change to pre-cancer cells.

Causes of Cervical Cancer

Cervical cancer begins when healthy cells in the cervix develop changes (mutations) in their DNA. A cell's DNA contains the instructions that tells a cell what to do. Healthy cells grow and multiply at a set rate, eventually dying at a set time. The mutations tell the cells to grow and multiply out of control, and they do not die. The accumulating abnormal cells form a mass (tumor). Cancer cells invade nearby tissues and can break off from a tumor to spread (metastasize) elsewhere in the body.

It is not clear what causes cervical cancer, but it is certain that HPV plays a role. HPV is very common, and most people with the virus never develop cancer. This means that other factors such as one’s environment or lifestyle choices can also determine whether one will develop cervical cancer.

Types of Cervical Cancer

The type of cervical cancer that a person has helps determine the prognosis and treatment. The main types of cervical cancer are:

Squamous cell carcinoma: This type of cervical cancer begins in the thin, flat cells (squamous cells) lining the outer part of the cervix, which projects into the vagina. Most cervical cancers are squamous cell carcinomas.

Adenocarcinoma: This type of cervical cancer begins in the column-shaped glandular cells that line the cervical canal.

Sometimes, both types of cells are involved in cervical cancer. Very rarely, cancer occurs in other cells in the cervix.

Common Signs and Symptoms of Cervical Cancer

Early stages of cervical cancer don't usually involve symptoms and are hard to detect. The first signs of cervical cancer may take several years to develop. Finding abnormal cells during cervical cancer screenings is the best way to avoid cervical cancer.

Signs and symptoms of stage 1 cervical cancer can include:

Watery or bloody vaginal discharge that may be heavy and can have a foul odor.

Vaginal bleeding after intercourse, between menstrual periods or after menopause.

Menstrual periods may be heavier and last longer than normal.

If cancer has spread to nearby tissues or organs, symptoms may include:

Difficult or painful urination, sometimes with blood in urine.

Diarrhea, or pain or bleeding from your rectum when pooping.

Fatigue, loss of weight and appetite.

A general feeling of illness.

Dull backache or swelling in your legs.

Pelvic/abdominal pain.

If one experiences abnormal bleeding, vaginal discharge or any other unexplained symptoms, you should have a complete gynecological examination that includes a Pap test.

Risk factors

The risk factors for cervical cancer include:

Many sexual partners. The greater the number of sexual partners one has and the greater your partner's number of sexual partners the greater your chance of acquiring HPV.

Early sexual activity. Having sex at an early age increases one’s risk of HPV.

Other sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Having other STIs such as; chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis and HIV/AIDS increases the risk of HPV.

A weakened immune system. One may be more likely to develop cervical cancer if your immune system is weakened by another health condition and you have HPV.

Smoking. Smoking is associated with squamous cell cervical cancer.

Exposure to miscarriage prevention drug. If an individual’s mother took a drug called diethylstilbestrol (DES) while pregnant in the 1950s, the individual may have an increased risk of a certain type of cervical cancer called clear cell adenocarcinoma.

Prevention

To reduce your risk of cervical cancer:

Ask your doctor about the HPV vaccine. Receiving a vaccination to prevent HPV infection may reduce your risk of cervical cancer and other HPV-related cancers. Ask your doctor whether an HPV vaccine is appropriate for you.

Have routine Pap tests. Pap tests can detect precancerous conditions of the cervix, so they can be monitored or treated in order to prevent cervical cancer. Most medical organizations suggest beginning routine Pap tests at age 21 and repeating them every few years.

Practice safe sex. Reduce your risk of cervical cancer by taking measures to prevent sexually transmitted infections, such as using a condom every time you have sex and limiting the number of sexual partners you have.

Don't smoke. If you don't smoke, don't start. If you do smoke, talk to your doctor about strategies to help you quit.

Treatment for Cervical Cancer

The cervical cancer treatment team includes a gynecologic oncologist (a doctor who specializes in cancers of female reproductive organs). Recommended treatment for cervical cancer is based on many factors including the stage of the disease, age and general health, and if one wants children in the future. The treatments for cervical cancer are radiation, chemotherapy, surgery, targeted therapy and immunotherapy.

Radiation

Radiation therapy uses energy beams to kill cancer cells on the cervix. There are two types of radiation therapy:

External beam radiation therapy (EBRT): Aims high-powered radiation at cancer from a machine outside the body.

Brachytherapy: Puts the radiation in or just near cancer.

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy (chemo) uses drugs that are injected through the veins or taken by mouth to kill cancer cells. It enters the blood and is effective for killing cells anywhere in the body. There are several drugs used for chemo and they can be combined. Chemo is often given in cycles. The length of the cycle and the schedule or frequency of chemotherapy varies depending on the drug used and where cancer is located.

Surgery

Different kinds of surgery are used to treat cervical cancer. Some of the most common kinds of surgery for cervical cancer include:

Laser surgery: This surgery uses a laser beam to burn off cancer cells.

Cryosurgery: This surgery freezes cancer cells.

Cone biopsy: A surgery in which a cone-shaped piece of tissue is removed from the cervix.

Simple hysterectomy: This surgery involves the removal of the uterus but not the tissue next to the uterus. The vagina and pelvic lymph nodes are not removed.

Radical hysterectomy with pelvic lymph node dissection: With this surgery, the uterus, surrounding tissue called the parametrium, the cervix, a small portion of the upper part of the vagina and lymph nodes from the pelvis are removed.

Trachelectomy: This procedure removes the cervix and the upper part of the vagina but not the uterus.

Pelvic exenteration: This is the same as a radical hysterectomy but includes the bladder, vagina, rectum and part of the colon, depending on where cancer has spread.

In its earliest stages, the disease is curable by removing the cancerous tissue. In other cases, the health provider may perform a simple hysterectomy or a radical hysterectomy.

Some people may have a combination of treatments. The provider may use radiation or chemotherapy to treat cancer that has spread or come back (recurred). Sometimes the provider will use radiation and chemotherapy before or after surgery.

Targeted therapy

Targeted drug treatment destroys specific cancer cells without damaging healthy cells. It works by targeting proteins that control how cancer cells grow and spread. As scientists learn more about cancer cells, they are able to design better-targeted treatments that destroy these proteins.

Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy uses medicine to stimulate the immune system to recognize and destroy cancer cells. Cancer cells can also avoid being attacked by the immune system by sending off a signal. Immunotherapy helps to target these signals so the cancer cells cannot trick the body into thinking it is a healthy cell. Clinical trials are another treatment option. They are controlled research studies to test new treatments for cancer. Some people use alternative treatments like diet, herbs, acupuncture and other methods to supplement their cancer treatment. 

How to Get Screened for Cervical Cancer

Most people should have regular cervical cancer screenings. Screenings include Pap tests, testing for HPV or a combination of both tests. These are the cervical screening cancer guidelines:

Cervical cancer screening should begin at age 21 years, regardless of sexual history. Some healthcare providers are willing to delay this until age 25.

For those 21 to 29 years of age, screening is recommended every three years with only a Pap test (no HPV test).

For people 30 years and older, co-testing with Pap and HPV should be done every five years, or Pap test alone every three years.

Routine Pap testing should be discontinued (stopped) in those who have had a total hysterectomy for benign conditions and who have no history of CIN (cervical intraepithelial neoplasia) grade 2 or higher.

Cervical cancer screening can be discontinued at age 65 in those who have two consecutive normal co-test results or three consecutive normal Pap test results in the past 10 years, with the most recent normal test performed in the past five years.

People who have been adequately treated for CIN grade 2 or higher will need to continue screening for 20 years, even if it takes them past the age of 65.

People 65 to 70 years of age or older who have had three or more normal Pap tests in a row and no abnormal Pap test results in the last 20 years should stop having cervical cancer screening. 

Those who have had a total hysterectomy (removal of the uterus and cervix) should also stop having cervical cancer screening unless they have a history of cervical cancer or pre-cancer. People who have had a hysterectomy without removal of their cervix should continue to follow the guidelines above.

Complications of Cervical Cancer

Complications of cervical cancer can happen as a side effect of treatment. They can also be a result of advanced cervical cancer. Side effects of cervical cancer treatments can include:

Early menopause

Narrowing of the vagina

Lymphoedema

Emotional impact

Early menopause

If one’s ovaries are removed or damaged during radiotherapy, you will have an early menopause. This is if one has not already been through it. Most women experience the menopause naturally in their early fifties.

Symptoms of the menopause include:

No longer having monthly periods or the periods becoming much more irregular

hot flushes

vaginal dryness

loss of sex drive

mood changes

night sweats

Special medication can relieve these symptoms.

These drugs help produce the hormones oestrogen and progesterone. This is known as hormone replacement therapy (HRT).

Lymphoedema

The lymph nodes in the pelvis may be removed. This can sometimes disrupt the lymphatic system. One of the things the lymphatic system does is drain excess fluid from the body's tissue. A disruption to this process can lead to a build-up of fluid in the tissue. This is called lymphoedema. This can cause certain body parts to become swollen. In cases of cervical cancer, usually the legs will become swollen. There are exercises and massage techniques that can reduce the swelling. Wearing special bandages and compression garments can also help.

Emotional impact

The emotional impact of living with cervical cancer can be significant. Many report experiencing a 'rollercoaster' effect. For example, one may feel down when you receive a diagnosis. But you may be happy when removal of the cancer has been confirmed. One may then feel down again as you try to come to terms with the after-effects of the treatment. This type of emotional disruption can sometimes trigger depression.            

Typical signs of depression include:

feeling sad

feeling hopeless

losing interest in things you used to enjoy.

Creative and Critical Thinking By Gerald Nwogueze

Creative and Critical Thinking

Gerald Nwogueze

INTRODUCTION 

Creative and critical thinking is intertwined and interdependent. Hence, it is essential for effective reasoning skill in generating and evaluating ideas for productivity, problem solving and decision making across different fields and in our daily living. One may wonder what these terms mean and how this working relationship between can could achieved? This paper hopes to look into the nature and principle of both creative and critical thinking and the interplay between them. It would by so doing, demystify it into different aspects for which it may be applied and finally narrow it down to argumentation. 

NATURE AND PRINCIPLE OF CREATIVITY 

Creative thinking in decision making is so important to man, without which he is no better than apes. Failure to engage our rational thinking capacity causes failure in all works of life. Some scholars are of the opinion that since nothing is new under the sun, creativity is simply referring to what has been to bring up new ideas and things, it is important we look at the principles of creative thinking, which differentiates it from mere thinking as given by Moore:

Creative Breakthrough: Often times one tends to attempt a perceptual (referring to old method) approach in problem solving to a satisfactory extent. Creative breakthrough is completely applying ideas and information new to oneself even though millions of people have attempted same idea and information. It is using a conceptual approach in solving problem. 

Preparation: One have to be disposed and make necessary preparation before creative breakthrough can come through. Arriving at different tentative conclusions is essential as a rule in order to get closer to breakthrough, even though it be unsatisfactory. At this point real creative thinkers do not give up. 

Incubation: This is the period one’s conscious attention is deliberately diverted to other subjects for a period of time, be it days, weeks, months or even years. The breakthrough is believed to be at the unconscious mind and is yet to pop up on the conscious mind. 

Persistence: Since the incubation is not a guarantee for breakthrough, creative thinkers even in the face of failure and criticism, employ perseverance, courage and retrial of the preparatory stage to get a different frame of reference which could connect to the idea in the unconscious mind to pop up for breakthrough to occur.  

Mechanical Methods: After the information comes on one’s conscious mind, breakthrough may not occur especially when the mind fail to combine things. Thus, one tends to employ mechanical method by combining the given information with tentative conclusions to get a clearer picture of what the problem is.

Analogies: This comes as a way of comparison of the problem at hand with similar problem already solved in the past. It is the link between the known and the unknown and obviously a fruitful source for tentative conclusions.

Adversity: Nothing good comes easy, adversities are bound to set in, but it could be converted with creative thinking into a reasonable advantage or at least twisted to a reduced level. 

Practice: Practice makes perfect, you can’t be a creative thinker until you begin to practice creative thinking skills. As a rule, for practice, one would have to give imagination freedom to range the frame of reference unchecked by critical thinking. 

NATURE AND PRINCIPLE OF CRITICAL THINKING 

The word “critical” is from a Greek word, krinein meaning “to separate,” “to choose;” it implies conscious, deliberate inquiry.” 

There are a lot of misconceptions about critical thinking. It is often viewed as someone who is always faultfinding or against something and is also viewed as emotionless thinking. However, it means thinking that meets the criteria of reasonableness. Also, emotions are essential to critical thinking, they give us data, for instance, the love of truth. Furthermore, critical thinking is reflective, it involves standards, it is authentic, it involves being reasonable and it is divided into three major parts: Asking Questions, reasoning them out and believing the results. Critical thinking in my opinion is a well reasoned thinking, essential for the logical structuring, evaluation and reflective analysis of the ideas that creative thinking puts forward. It fine-tunes, reshapes and brings creative breakthrough to a reasonable conclusion. 

According to Steve Padget, “Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action.”

Also, he goes forward to outline the skills involved in critical thinking as regards education as follows: the ability to analyze complex issues and problems:

• Ability to analyze complex issues and problem
• The recognition of different points of view and assumptions;
• The skill of evaluating these against a range of accepted criteria;
• Being able to make inferences and draw conclusions based on available
• information;
• The ability to transfer these skills across subject boundaries;
• Being able to see the interconnectedness of ideas and insights.

Critical Thinking in Argumentation

Critical thinking skills is applied in the construction and evaluation of an argument. An argument is said to comprise of a claim, evidence for the claim, a warrant; which that connects the evidence to the claim, and qualifications to the argument. Critical thinking aims at maintaining an objective position, evaluate the coherence. Narrowed down to critical thinking in argumentation, Baker, M., et al. stated that: 

 …involves the individual’s ability to do some or all of the following: identify central issues and assumptions in an argument, recognize important relationships, make correct inferences from data, deduce conclusions from information or data provided, interpret whether conclusions are warranted on the basis of the data given, and evaluate evidence or authority…and these require a set of skills:

1. Distinguishing between verifiable facts and value claims

2. Distinguishing relevant from irrelevant information, claims, and reasons

3. Determining factual accuracy of a statement

4. Determining credibility of a source

5. Identifying ambiguous claims or arguments

6. Identifying unstated assumptions

7. Detecting bias

8. Identifying logical fallacies

9. Recognizing logical inconsistencies in a line of reasoning

10. Determining the strength of an argument or claim

To further present a refined critical thinking, and quoting Paul, outlined three thought traits and/or processes possessed by the critical thinker. These include the following: 

Elements of reasoning: To arrive at well-reasoned thinking, certain reasoning elements are to be put into consideration: one has to know the purpose of or question at hand, information and/or facts about the question, assumptions made about the question, interpretation of the facts and data collected, theories and concepts related to the question, and inclusion of other points of view, and finally, an assessment of the conclusions is drawn with emphasis on implications and consequences of the decisions reached as a result of the thinking process. 

Traits of reasoning: This includes independent thinking, intellectual empathy, intellectual humility, courage, integrity, perseverance, intellectual curiosity, faith in reason, intellectual civility, and intellectual responsibility. These traits are not only present in critical thinkers, they are consciously utilized to guide the thinking process.

Reasoning standards: These traits in my understanding, should as stated above, consist the logical principles set out as a tool, standard and guide to analyze the reasoning process and also should be measure for setting out conclusions on the validity, soundness and logical coherence of the reasoning process. 

THE SYNERGY OF CREATIVE AND CRITICAL THINKING

In our age of globalization, just as stated earlier, effective thinking skills are needed in solving complicated problems, and these skills includes critical thinking and creativity. According to Steve Padget, “creativity and critical thinking can, be regarded as two sides of the same coin…and can be argued that to think well requires both creative and critical capabilities, that neither can be effective without the other’”. 

To further explain the relationship, Joe Lau sees critical thinking as “thinking clearly and rationally. It involves thinking precisely and systematically, and following the rules of logic and scientific reasoning, among other things. As for creativity, it is a matter of coming up with new and useful ideas, generating alternative possibilities.” Creative and critical thinking by way of mutual dependency combine effort to ensure that situations and problem we meet have corresponding solution using both creative thinking and analytical, logical critical thinking.  

Also, creative thinking has been defined by Edgar Moore “as the formulation of possible solutions to a problem or explanations of a phenomenon, and critical thinking as the testing and evaluation of these solutions or explanations.” Explaining further, he pointed practical example of the interplay between creating and critiquing which proves good outcome. To him, 

To put a new product on the market, the manufacturer must first “create” the idea for the new product. But if he has good business sense, he will not market the product until it has been thoroughly “criticized” by testing and evaluation. In solving a crime, a good detective “creates” possible explanations and then tests them with all the evidence he can get. If he fails to “create” the right explanations, he cannot possibly solve the crime. If he is careless in “criticizing” the explanations he has created, his “solution” of the crime may be the wrong one. In diagnosing an illness, the physician first “creates” possible diagnoses that seem to fit the symptoms and then “criticizes” these by further examination of the patient or by laboratory tests. His final diagnosis can¬ not be right unless the possible diagnoses he has “created” include the right one. Even when his possible diagnoses do include the right one, he may still make a mistake if he is careless in “criticizing” his possible diagnoses. 

 In my understanding here, in creating and criticizing, there is interrelatedness and these ideas yield effective thinking and are both equally important as seen in their complementarity. 

 More so, creativity and critical thinking have a relationship that is so close to symbiotic. Creativity being something imaginative, purposeful, new, original and of value, etc. needs the ground prepared by critical thinking, being something rational, open-minded, honest, self-conscious, disciplined and judgmental, etc. to grow.

Furthermore, on creative and critical thinking being likened to different sides of a coin, similar but not identical; creative thinking is divergent, critical thinking is convergent; one creates something new and the other seeks to analyze and check for validity of that which has been created; one in attempt to create could violate accepted principles and the other makes do with accepted principles.

Co-relation Between Creative and Critical Thinking Disposition 

According to the research findings by Kani Ulger, “The critical skill is an expression of creativity [and thus,] it is impossible to gap between critical and creative thinking. [Although,] Creative thinking and critical thinking include many common traits, [however] there is very little research to determine the relationship between both thinking skills and little is known about this relationship.” Hence, the following dispositions have been found to be co-related:

Analiticity and Creative Strength: Analiticity entails the ability to breakdown a given problem and be insistent on simplifying it; Creative Strength in my understanding entails one’s potentials and being sensitive to problem solving. The tendency to be sensitive to problem is meaningful in problem analysis. 

Elaboration and Resistance to Premature: Elaboration is the ability to bring forth ideas in details; to be resistant to premature is to be consistent in logical questioning and open mindedness. The relationship is meaningful as what to prob is found in the elaborated ideas. 

Creative Strength and Open Mindedness: Since creative strength entails one’s potential and ability to develop them for a solution, Open minded is that tolerance to cope with the different approaches and accept or make mistakes. 

Inquisitiveness and Truth-seeking: Being inquisitive is taking into reflection possible solution for a problem and truth seeking relates to finding an objective. One is sensitive and the other is directional to objectivity. 

He concluded that non-routine-problem plays important role in the relationship between (and the development of) creative and critical thinking skills 

 

Analysis and Conclusion 

 This paper has so far being able to clarify the meaning and working relationship between creative and critical thinking as being interdependent and intertwined in decision making, problem solving and argumentation. Also, it proceeded to look into the nature and principles of both creative and critical thinking; the former being an innovative thinking with notable principles such as creative breakthrough, being the facts, idea and information being sort after, and others like preparation, incubation, persistence, etc. the latter being a deliberate, rational, coherent, analytical and well reasoned examination or inquiry into the ideas and information birthed by creative thinking so as to ensure they are correct and follow logical principles. Furthermore, it looked at the synergy between creative and critical thinking as being symbiotic, two different but interrelated sides of a coin. Creative thinking being something imaginative, purposeful, new, original, and of value, etc and critical thinking being something rational, open-minded, honest, self-conscious, disciplined, analytic and judgmental. Going still further, it stated the co-relation between creative and critical thinking disposition and came to the conclusion that non-routine problem plays important role in the relationship between (and the development of) creative and critical thinking. 

 In conclusion and having analyzed this paper, it came up with the idea that creativity termed new and original takes clue from preexisting knowledge to get features that differentiates it from the preexisting knowledge or idea. Thus, in our contemporary age, it dared to ask if there is something new under the sun independent of existing components? In other not to deviate from the study question raised in the introduction, it agreed that there is a relationship between creative and critical thinking and this relationship lies in their mutual inter-dependency. Thus, productive thinking requires and cannot do without creative and critical thinking.   

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

____Moore, E. 1967. Creative and Critical Thinking. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. 141-150

____Benny Jack, “Critical Thinking” in Barnet S. and Barnet, S. (Ed.) 1993. Current Issues and Enduring Questions, A Guide to Critical Thinking and Argument, with readings. 3

____Current Issues and Enduring Questions, A Guide to Critical Thinking and Argument, with readings. M01_NOSI5149_04_SE_C01.QXD

 ____What is Critical Thinking. M01_NOSI5149_04_SE_C01.QXD 1-15 

____Padget, S. (Ed.) 2013. In Creativity and creative thinking. London: Routledge omw 8& Francis Group. 7

____Baker, M., Rudd, R., et al. Creative and Critical Thinking. Boston

Y___Padget, S. (Ed.) 2013. In Creativity and creative thinking. London: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. 4

____ Lau, J. 2011. An Introduction to Critical Thinking and Creativity, Think More, Think Better. Canada: John Wiley & Sons. 1

_____Taylor & Francis H.U Journal of EducationThe relationship between Creative and Critical Thinking Skill of Students

_____Ulger, K. The relationship between Creative and Critical Thinking Skill of Students. H.U Journal of Education. 31(4). (October, 2016). 700-703

Management of Resources in a Developing World: Reflections and Thoughts of an Economic Historian by Emmanuel Osewe AKUBOR PhD (Zaria

Management of Resources in a Developing World: Reflections and Thoughts of an Economic Historian 

Emmanuel Osewe AKUBOR PhD (Zaria),

Department of History, 

Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. 

oseweakubor@gmail.com,

 akuboreo@oauife.edu.ng 

Introduction

Scholars have argued that as far as the history of human existence is concerned, Resource Management / production/processing is the most widespread form of human activity. In most of the Developing countries of the world (Nigeria inclusive), indigenous (also referred to as traditional) production/ processing had started from early times (pre-colonial period) and most of the traditionally processed gods  are based on a combination of preservation technologies, common sense and indigenous technology (Umoh, 1991:15). In term of the indigenous food industry,  Akubor and Akubor (2018) specifically noted that it is the main-prolong of the economic activity predominantly subsistence farming, providing a livelihood to more than three-quarters of the human race. The availability of much process from this agricultural practice, initially led to a situation in which in the rural areas, the traditional pattern of food utilisation involves mainly the consumption of different food items in the fresh state with little or no post-harvest processing, before being cooked into meal. However, with the advancement of most societies, as well as the increase in population, there arose the need to advance method that will help preserve agricultural produce for the rainy days. It was this situation that led to development of system of Food Processing. 

Resources: What are they?

Natural Resources (also referred to here as Geography or Environment)  refers to the physical, geological, and climatic conditions and the flora and fauna of a region determining and/or influencing the thoughts and the actions of its inhabitants.[1  ]This is because the environment (geography or nature) provides on the one hand a provocation to act and on the other hand both means that can be utilized in acting and insurmountable limits imposed upon the human striving for betterment. It provides a stimulus but not the response. Geography sets a task, but man has to solve it. Man lives in a definite geographical environment and is forced to adjust his action to the conditions of this environment through the methods of his social, technological, and moral adaptation. [2]

Resources and Management of Resources

In organizational studies, resource management is the efficient and effective development of an organization's resources when they are needed. Such resources may include the financial resources, inventory, human skills, production resources, or information technology (IT) and natural resources.

Resource management, or resource planning, is the process by which businesses plan, schedule, and allocate resources in order to achieve the highest organizational value. Those resources can be intangible, such as skills and time, or tangible, such as equipment, materials, and finances. Essentially, resource management means planning so that the right resources are assigned to the right tasks at the right time. Managing resources involves creating schedules and setting budgets for people, projects, equipment, and supplies.

Why is Resource Management important?

The resource management process is crucial to the success of any business because it reduces cost and wasted effort. By following resource management techniques, you gain insight on what's required to complete products and deliver projects, as well as the skills to make it happen regardless of external factors.

Economic resources definition Economic resources are the inputs we use to produce goods and services. Economic resources can be divided into four categories: labour, land or natural resources, capital, and entrepreneurship (entrepreneurial ability). Labour refers to human effort and talent. Natural resources are resources, such as land, oil, and water. Capital refers to man-made equipment like machinery, buildings, or computers. Finally, entrepreneurship involves the effort and know-how to put all the other resources together.  Economic resources are also called factors of production.

A far as Entrepreneur is concerned, Entrepreneurial resources are defined as the propensity of an individual to behave creatively, act with foresight, use intuition, and be alert to new opportunities. To the geographically informed person, it must understand that a "resource" is a cultural concept. A resource is any physical material constituting part of Earth that people need and value. Natural materials become resources when humans value them. The uses and values of resources change from culture to culture and from time to time. Resources are spatially distributed varying in quantity and quality. Some resources are finite, while others can be replenished at varying rates. However, humans need to balance short-term rates of use against long-term availability to ensure a sustainable future.

Reasons for Resource Management

• Eliminates waste: With proper resource management, you can maximize resource efficiency across a variety of categories, ensuring that none of the equipment, space, or material you've invested in goes unused.

• Optimizes time: Resource planning ensures the team members you've hired understand their roles and spend their time on projects that add the most value. Instead of saying yes to everything, resource managers can schedule and prioritize projects based on real-time data.

• Minimizes risk: Poor resource allocation can lead to situations where a business does not have enough available resources (e.g. labor, raw materials, equipment) to meet its objectives or fulfill its obligations. Resource management reduces this risk.

• Maximizes profit: Even if your sales are high and your pricing is perfect, poor resource management can result in excess costs further upstream, cutting into your bottom line.

Africa and Her Resources

Africa is argued to house an estimated  1.3 billion inhabitants (China is 1.4 billion inhabitants out of 9.6 million km ². ). In term of space, Africa is thirty and a half million km² (30 415 875 km ²), with this, it is argued that  Africa is bigger than all of Europe, China and the United States of America combined (area of China = 9.6 million km ², US area = 9.8 million km ², Area of Europe = 10.18 million km ²). But on most of the world maps in the books, Africa is represented in reduced dimension, and this, to create the visual effect of a small Africa. Africa is cultural diversity (dance, music, architecture, sculpture, etc.). Africa has about 30,000 medicinal recipes. It has also been argued that with such resources, by 2050, Africa alone will be able to feed 9 billion mouths). With leaders who are not at the service of multinationals and who are ready to serve.

In the case of Nigeria, Traditionally, the Nigerian area and people has immense resource. This is based on both her geographical location as well as the rich potentials within the environment. Thus the area possesses 84 million hectares of arable land but only cultivate 40%. Nigeria has 263 billion cubic meters of water – with two of the largest rivers in Africa. It has a cheap labour force to support intensification. The greatest resources is the human resources, which the country has in abundance – over two hundred million people. With this both the people and area has been able over time maintained ability for sustainable crop production as a way of growing or raising food in an ecologically and ethically responsible manner.

In the case of Nigeria, Agriculture is the mainstay of Nigeria’s economy. It contributes about 40% to real GDP, while it employs over 70% of the active labour force, it also accounts for over 90% of non-export earnings and has the potential to contribute over 50% of the total export if well harnessed. As noted above, the Nigerian area and people has immense agricultural potential, based on both her geographical location as well as the rich agricultural potentials within the environment. In this the rural society and family plays very important role in production. In this land (as in most parts of Africa), remains the major means of production. It is in line with this that P.A, Talbot (1962), argued that the whole social structure of the society has been developed primarily around agriculture and land produce. This is because it is one aspect of the web of social relations and the central force for knitting the family together and the wider community as one. Unfortunately, the situation is the reverse today, as the country has failed to manage the resource for development. 

Table I: Natural Resources within the Environment

s/no	Location	Resources
1	Abuja	Marble, Clay, Tentalite,  Cassiterite,  Biarytes, Bauxite, Gold ,  Lead /Zinc,   Dolomite
2	Abia	Gold, Salt, Limestone,  Lead/Zinc, ,Lignite, Magnesite, oil/gas
3	Adamawa	Kaolin,  Bentonite, Gypsium, Magnesite, Lignite, salt
4	Akwa Ibom	Lead/Zinc, Clay,  Limestone, Uranium (Traced), Salt, Lignite (Traced)
5	Anambra	Lead/Zinc, Clay, Limestone, Iron-Ore,  Lignite, Salt,  Glass-Sand,  Phosphate,  Gypsium
6	Bayelsa	Clay, Limestone, Gypsium (partially investigated),  Uranium, Manganese, Lignite,   Lead/Zinc
7	Bauchi	Amethyst (violet), Gypsium,  Lead/Zinc (Traces), Uranium (partially investigated)
8	Benue	Lead/Zinc, Limestone,  Iron-Ore,  Coal,   Clay,  Marble,   Salt, Benytes (traces), Gem stone, Gypsium
9	Borno	Diatomite,  Clay, Limestone, Hydro-carbon (oil and gas), Gypsium,  Kaolin,  Bentonite
10	C/ Rivers	Limestone,  Uranium, Manganese,  Lignite,  Lead/Zinc, Salt, Benytes, oil/gas
11	Delta	Marble, Glass Sand,  Gypsium,  Lignite,  Iron-Ore,  Kaolin, oil/gas
12	Ebonyi	Lead/Zinc, Gold,  Salt
13	Edo	Marble, Lignite,  Clay,  Limestone,   Iron Ore,  Gypsium,   Glass-sand, Gold, Dolomite Phosphate, Bitumen, oil/gas
14	Ekiti	Kaolin, Feldspar, Tatium,  Granite, Syenite
115	Enugu	Coal,  Limestone, Lead/Zinc
16	Gombe	Gemstone,  Gypsium
17	Imo	Lead/Zinc, Limestone, Lignite, Phosphate, Marcasite,  Gypsium, Salt
18	Jigawa	Buthyles
19	Kaduna	Sapphire, Kaolin,  Gold, Clay, Surpentinite, Asbestos, Amethyst, Kyanite, Graphite (partally investgated),  Silhnite, Mica (Traces), Aqua marine,  Ruby, Rock Crystal, Topaz, Flosper, Tourmaline, Gemstone, Tentalime
20	Kano	Pyrochime, Cassiterite,  Copper,   Glass – Sand,  Gemstone, Lead/Zinc, Tantalite, tourmaline
21	Katsina	Kaolin, Marble,  Salt
22	Kebbi	Gold
23	Kogi	Iron-Ore,  Kaolin, Gypsium, Feldsper, Coal, Marble, Dolomite, Talc, Tentalite
24	Kwara	Gold, Marble, Iron-Ore, Cassiterite, Columbite, Tantalite, Feldspar (Traces), Mica (Traces)
25	Lagos	Glass-sand,  Clay, Bitumen
26	Nasarawa	Beryl (emerald), Aqua marine and Hellodor),  Dolomite/Marble,  Sapphire, Tourmaline, Quartz-   Amethyst (Topaz, Gamet), Zireon, Tantalite, Cassiterite, Columbite, Limenite, Galena, Iron-Ore, Barytes, Feldspar, Limestone,  Mica, Cooking coal, Talc, Clay, Salt, Chalcopyrite
27	Niger	Gold, Talc,  Lead/Zinc
28	Ogun	Phosphate,  Clay, Feldspar (traces), Kaolin, Limestone,  Gemstone, Bitumen
29	Ondo	Bitumen, Kaolin, Gemstone, Gypsium, Feldspar, Granite, Clay, Glass-sand, Dimesion stones, Limestone, Coal, oil/gas.
30	Osun	Gold, Talc, Tantalite, Tourmaline,  Columbite, Granite
31	Oyo	Kaolin,  Marble, Clay, Sillimonite,  Talc, Gold, Cassiterite, Aqua Marine, Dolomite, Gemstone, Tantalite
32	Plateau	Emerald, Tin, Marble, Granite, Tantalite/Columbite,  Lead/Zinc, Barytes, Iron-Ore, Kaolin, Betonite, Cassiterrite, Phrochlore, Clay, Coal,  Wolfam, Salt, Bismuth, Fluoride, Molybdenite, Gemstone, Bauxite
33	River	Glass-sand, Clay, Marble, Lignite (traces), oil/gas
34	Sokoto	Kaolin, Gold, Limestone, Phosphate, Gypsium, silica-sand, Clay, Laterite, Potash, Flakes, Granite, Gold, Salt
35	Taraba	Kaolin, Lead/Zinc
36	Yobe	Diatomite, Tintomite, Soda Ash
37	Zamfara	Flakes, Coal, Cotton,  Gold, Silica Sand

Source: Federal Ministry of Solid Mineral, Abuja, J.C, Nwaka (2010:282-284),Lenten Campaign (2011), Sustaining our Environment for Integral Human Development; Catholic Secretariat of Nigeria, JDP/Caritas, Nigeria: pp. 21-23; Akubor, E.O (2016), Human, Environment and Sustainable Development in Nigeria in the 21st Century: Historicizing the glorious Past, Interrogating the Future Path; Ife Social Science Review (Journal of the Faculty of Social Sciences, Special Issue: 269.

Poverty in the Midst of Plenty

Unfortunately, even with the rich resources, the Country has not been able to make maximal use of resources. There is no evidence of meaningful resource management both at the individual, local, state and national level. The result is that the country is perpetually indebted and less developed. According to Rodney, development in human society is a many-sided process. At the level of the individual, it implies increased skill and capacity, greater freedom, creativity, self-discipline, responsibility, and material well-being.  At the level of the social groups, development implies an increasing capacity to regulate both internal and external relationships.  Rodney further says that development cannot be seen purely as an economic affair, but rather as an overall social process that is dependent upon the outcome of man’s efforts to deal with the natural environment. Thus, development means a capacity for self-sustaining growth. It means that an economy must register advances which will in turn promote further progress. 

One can also infer from these definitions that development involves the proper utilization of a nation’s resources in order to efficiently increase productivity for the betterment and general welfare of the people. Even the United Nations Organizations shares a similar opinion. The organization contends that much of the poverty in a large part of the world is due to underdevelopment of resources. It was for this reason that the United Nations General Assembly designated the 1960s as the United Nations Development Decade, and the 1970s as the Second Development Decade . 

Development does not only refer to the provision of physical amenities but also to the mental development of the individual. Thus, no matter how elusive the term development may be, it implies a long-term process of change that touches every aspect of human society. This includes, among other things, issues relating to the economy, social life, and politics, all of which eventually contribute to the general progress of society. This goes to show that development involves the unending improvement in the capacity of the individual and society to control and manipulate the forces of nature as well as themselves and other individuals and societies not only for their own benefit but that of humanity at large. It is a process of actualizing man’s inherent capacity to live a better and more rewarding life . From this, it should be pointed out that development would only come if the resources of a people are properly harnessed.

Unfortunately, in the case of Nigeria, the resources may be available, but the evident in the table below  shows the direct opposite as indicated in the nation’s performance at the end of 2022.

Table II: LIST OF OUTGOING GOVERNORS AND DEBTS BEING LEFT BEHIND

s/no	Name	State	Debt as at 2015	Debt as at 2022
1	Okezie Ikpeazu	Abia	$40.5 billion	₦146 billion
2	Udom Emmanuel	Akwa Ibom	₦156.4 billion	₦239.4 billion
3	Samuel Ortom	Benue	₦45.9 billion	₦154.7 billion
4	Gov Ben Ayade	Cross River	₦138.4 billion	₦291.1 billion
5	Ifeanyi Okowa	Delta	N327.1 billion	N331.1 billion
6	Dave Umahi Ebonyi	Ebonyi	₦42.1 billion	₦102.7 billion
7	Ifeanyi Ugwuanyi	Enugu	₦42.1 billion	₦102.7 billion
8	Muhammad Badaru Abubakar	Jigawa	₦27.9 billion	₦146 billion
9	Nasir el-Rufai	Kaduna	₦87.9 billion	₦340 billion
10	Abdullahi Umar Ganduje	Kano	₦74.7 billion	₦167.5 billion
11	Aminu Bello Masari	Katsina	₦23.6 billion	₦86.5 billion
12	Abubakar Atiku Bagudu	Kebbi	₦71.4 billion	₦79.9 billion
13	Abubakar Sani Bello	Niger	₦29 billion.	₦126.6 billion
14	Simon Lalong	Plateau	₦101.3 billion	₦163.5 billion
15	Nyesom Wike	Rivers	₦142.8 billion	₦264.5 billion
16	Aminu Tambuwal	Sokoto	N31.5 billion	N108.8 billion
17	Bello Muhammad Matawalle	Zamfara	₦71.9 billion	₦125.1 billion

Source:  Ima Elijah (2023), LIST OF OUTGOING GOVERNORS AND DEBTS BEING LEFT BEHIND. Pulse Nigeria.  https://www.pulse.ng/news/politics/list-of-outgoing-governors-and-the-debts-left-behind/r9jmtj8. May 17, 2023

 

Conclusion

Nigeria has resources, but lacks proper Resource Management resulting in Poverty, Hunger, Malnutrition and Underdevelopment. 

End Notes

1. Nigeria Annual Report on the Social and Economic Progress of the People of Nigeria. Government Press, 1933

2. Ludwig von Mises (2010), The Role of Environment in History; http://mises.org/resources/118/Theory-and-History-An-Interpretation-of-social-and-economic-evolution, December 1, retrieved on 15th October, 2015:1